Are electric vehicles really green?

Promoting the use of electric vehicles (EVs) is one key governmental initiatives for reducing harmful pollutants and combating climate change. But this best or most effective way to save planet? EVs are touted their eco-friendliness but they really green? I discuss five reasons question ability live up hype. The questionable green linkage includes sourcing (some which non-green); batteries (manufacturing, replacement, disposal); reliance on subsidies (which may be directed at wrong market segment); charging stations (including availability costs); whether alternatives would a better choice effects environment. Electric do exceptionally well toxins, have drawbacks such as limited driving range options, especially renters, who not usually considered when evaluating costs benefits vehicles. Electricity powering cars trucks comes from variety sources, all green. Key sources electricity generation in USA include coal, natural gas, nuclear energy, wind hydropower, solar energy (EIA, 2022a). Although coal clearly green, other also non-green components, will discussed. Coal was second-largest electricity-generating source 21.86 per cent US marketplace 2021. Natural leading generating source, claims 38.44 market. Coal, typically dirtiest varies greatly by state company. states 2021 ranged maximum 90.63 West Virginia minimum 0 Massachusetts, with average 24.38 cent. An example an company mix Michigan's Detroit (DTE) current fuel 8.1 cent, 18.7 gas 8.7 oil 0.2 64.3 (see Table 1 2). Even forecast changes through 2040, less than half total produced renewable (Riles, 2021). Renewable exempt drawbacks. minerals needed panels, turbines, power own environmental issues. extraction materials used renewables infrastructure (such copper, lithium, nickel, manganese, cobalt, graphite, chromium, molybdenum, zinc, silicon, indium, boron, uranium, arsenic, aluminum, gallium, titanium) can damage mining operations these polluted air, land, water surrounding mines. Without major modifications seem high priority within firms), environment continue impacted negatively. Furthermore, it nearly impossible produce carbon-neutral fashion because even has carbon footprint result production installation process. To determine product source's footprint, Life Cycle Assessment carried out. This assessment takes into consideration upstream downstream greenhouse emissions. Upstream emissions those that released during steps production, processing minerals, transportation, construction. Downstream resource afterwards, maintenance, disposal, decommissioning In scenario meets Paris Agreement goals, clean technologies' share demand rises significantly over next two decades 40% copper rare earth elements, 60–70% nickel almost 90% lithium. battery storage already displaced consumer electronics become largest lithium set take stainless steel end-user 2040. ( IEA, 2022, p. 5) many challenges confronting transition focus areas: social. Environmental concerns revolve around categories. First, change relates impact metals revolution Second land impacts minerals. Third management. Like mining, large amount associated huge wastewater accelerating stress areas where processes undertaken. fourth concern hazardous waste generated properly dispose it. Finally, fifth revolved social governance, is, sharing lack rewards inhabitants countries extractions place. From aspect, health safety human rights. Health deals plight workers hazards face. Attention rights revolves exploitation children women industry (IEA, 40). EV relate primarily what happens old recycling hazards. advanced designed extended life, wear out eventually. Several manufacturers offering eight-year/100,000-mile warranties. National Energy Laboratory suggests today's last 12 15 years moderate climates (8 extreme climates) (Recurrent, all-electric car inevitably degrade time. factors influence rate degradation conditions, driving, recharging (from high-charging versus low-charging battery; avoid both extremely low levels), (AV DC), slow charge (good) fast (bad). entire replacement process discussed Najman (2022), mostly replacing Nissan Leaf since first thus only model needs replacements outside One concerns, cost, mechanics trained carry replacements. Another salvaged cars, new ones. Most need same cycle connections, shape, size differ another. resulted waiting list She mentions cost breakdown approximately 95 5 labour. What dies? Technically, does die; just cannot recharge provide adequate travel. Battery focuses economically recyclable material: cobalt. there others nickel) recyclable. How recycled? methods heat acid, potentially damaging method, pyrometallurgy, uses break down material. involves placing shredded (called black mass) furnace using organic burn-off heat. remains slag expensive difficult remove. Cobalt easier cheaper second process, called hydrometallurgy, shredding mass acid bath get rid non-metal components. Hydrometallurgy environmentally destructive. Both more efficient if involved standardisation, like lead gas-powered (Leber, 2022). sales reliant government subsidies. These skewed towards upper middle classes; little value people incomes. federal Qualified Plug-In Electric-Drive Motor Vehicle Tax Credit available purchases yet met certain thresholds vehicle sales. It provides tax credit $2,500–$7,500 purchases, determined capacity its battery.1 Three incentives (a) (EV) Fuel Cell (FCEV) Credit; (b) Alternative Infrastructure (c) Pre-Owned (for details see 4). Nine offer some sort additional – Arizona, California, Colorado, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Dakota, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin District Columbia. Metz et al. (2021) advocate changing incentive policies encourage superusers gasoline-powered switch vehicles, top 10 drivers terms gasoline consumption burn 32 gasoline, bottom 60 combined. superuser classification applies consume 1,000 gallons year. category drives three times miles driver, likely drive pickups sports utility (SUVs), lives rural areas, spends 8 income twice driver). See comparison remaining drivers. criticism past proposed reduction arrive too far future. For instance, increasing emission standards affect historically annual turnover 6 cent.2 Thus, propose $10 gallon consumed. structure cover purchase price classified superusers. Coupled savings, incentivise gas-guzzling similar EV, options light truck SUV categories, match existing preference transportation. policy greater probability achieving real reductions shorter period. analysis Ford F-150 Pickup Truck shows saving $104.97 driven engine version. based Protection Agency (EPA) estimates various 2023 models, prices gallon, kWh estimated EPA ratings models). combined city highway 25 2WD HEV (hybrid) 6-cylinder, 3.5 L Raptor 8-cylinder, 5.2 engine. 9 January $3.59/gallon, $2.89 Gulf Coast $$3.961 Coast. Residential averaged $0.1372 kWh, ranges $0.0817 Idaho $0.3035 Hawaii.3 shown 7. $85.32 lowest region's $142.36 highest cost. savings account user counterpoint maintenance savings. run without stations. So, besides stations, addressed is: pays? Again, limits access poorer homes, primary charger (level 2 residential charger) located. home, So respective costs? A recent report renewable-energy-focused non-profit Rocky Mountain Institute examined found final bill depend kind required. Basic level-2 commercial chargers $2,500 $4,900 each, while DC anywhere $20,000 $150,000 depending speed output That's chargers. support electrical chargers, upfront transformers ($35,000–$173,000 each) added, along cables ($1,500–$3,500 each), card readers ($325–$1,000 apiece) data/network contracts ($284–$490 year (Nelder & Rogers, 2019). summary costs. main components comprise procurement, requirements, soft Besides hardware, procurement expenses managing capability, contracts, software, grid hosting capacity, make-ready infrastructure. Requirements payment systems, measurement compliance, compliance Americans Disabilities Act, parking dual plug types direct-current charging, standards. costs, communications between utilities providers, futureproofing, easement processes, complex codes permitting easily quantified. add fast. doesn't paid distributor. There incentives, rebates, grants several different related. Should reduce pollution target market? available, biomethane (BioNGV). option, (NGV), attributes: offers CO2 fine particles compared vehicles; established distribution network; conventional fuels (gasoline diesel); (d) engines require combustion engines; (e) 250 300 miles, long wait refuel recharge. alternative, BioNGV, characteristics except methanisation waste; thus, helps goes landfills. When liquid fuel, 80 lower generates odour trace amounts nitrogen oxides. currently being metropolitan public transportation NGV (SNECI, possibilities: hydrogen biofuels (ethanol ethyl tert-butyl ether, ETBE). They potential, development viable options. (HV) internal engines, hydrogen. alternatives, refueled pump. benefit HVs H2O (water). (375 miles) longer (250–300 miles). hurdle HV obtaining hydrogen, either steam reforming electrolysis water. former relies reaction oil, release dioxide. latter breaking parts (oxygen hydrogen). Unfortunately, toxic by-products scalable. Biofuels ETBE) combustible pollution. significant option? As pointed out, totally Yes, much greener fossil counterparts. highly dependent upon directly manufacture source. manufacturing side, factor potential problems difficulty proper disposal. disposal issues conventual high- low-pollution options; example, (high) (low). polluting aspects arising units (i.e. large-scale farms). sourcing. detailed here wish steer motoring friendlier always trade-offs. Nevertheless, must option environment, alternatives. alternative technologies pollutants, cost-effective run, short-sighted. generate great meet hype proactive approach across supply chain.